Encapsulated starch characteristics and its shell matrix mechanisms controlling starch digestion

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Food Chemistry 423 (2023) 136322

Available online 12 May 2023

Review

Encapsulated starch characteristics and its shell matrix mechanisms

controlling starch digestion

Supaluck Kraithong

, Atiruj Theppawong

, Riming Huang

Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China

Organic and Biomimetic Chemistry Research Group, Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281 S4, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium

ARTICLE INFO

Keywords:

Encapsulation

Encapsulated starch

Encapsulant materials

Shell matrices

Slow digestion

ABSTRACT

Encapsulated starch can be classied as physically inaccessible starch or type 1 resistant starch (RS1), which is

produced by encapsulating starch granules within food matrices using various encapsulation techniques.

Encapsulated starch has the potential to be used as a functional ingredient in low-/medium-glycemic index (GI)

foods as it can help control glycemic and insulin responses. Despite its remarkable benets, the relevant infor-

mation related to entrapped starch and its application is still insufcient and needs further elucidation. The

objective of this work is to present a comprehensive overview of the current techniques utilized for the prepa-

ration of encapsulated starch and its characteristics, thereby extending the fundamental knowledge. Further-

more, this review delves into the mechanisms governing starch hydrolysis regulated by shell matrices and

provides the prospective utilization of encapsulated starch in food production.

1. Introduction

Hyperglycemia or high blood sugar (caused by consuming high-

–glycemic index (GI) foods) could be a factor promoting the risk for type

2 diabetes, heart disease, and overweight (Maki, Rains, Kaden, Raneri, &

Davidson, 2007). The prevalence and severe symptoms of the diseases

develop greater health concerns in consuming slowly digested carbo-

hydrates or low–/medium–GI foods. Resistant starch has widely been

applied in many food products to slow starch hydrolysis and probably

control blood sugar levels since it is indigested in the small intestine but

is further fermentable in the colon. Encapsulated starch is known as

starch granules that are physically entrapped by food polymer matrices

through encapsulation processes which can be classied as type 1

resistant starch (RS1) or physically inaccessible starch (Varelis, Melton,

& Shahidi, 2018). Starch encapsulation facilitates a reduction in glucose

release and a decrease in digestion rate owing to the constraint of starch

within the shell matrices, rendering it indigestible in the small intestine

(Park, Kim, Kim, & Moon, 2014). Food hydrocolloids serve as the pre-

dominant shell materials for starch encapsulation, providing vital pro-

tection against harmful environmental factors during digestion process.

The encapsulated starch prepared by encapsulating native, boiled, or

roasted pea starch with alginate at a ratio of 9:1. Encapsulation of

roasted pea starch had the highest RS content (50.9%), thus, it has been

used to replace the native pea starch (37.5%) in bread products (Lu,

Donner, & Liu, 2018). The replacement caused an increase in slowly

digestible starch (SDS, from 0.2% to 23.9%) and resistant starch con-

tents (RS, from 2.5% to 30.2%). The results of this research further

revealed that the substitution of entrapped starch could moderate car-

bohydrate release during gastric digestion without showing an effect on

product acceptability. Other health benets of the physically entrapped

starch that have also been recorded are promoting a high production of

benecial metabolites that are known as short–chain fatty acids (SCFAs)

such as acetate, propionate, and butyrate (Rose, Venema, Keshavarzian,

& Hamaker, 2010). The benecial substances could prevent neuro-

degeneration and promote neuroregeneration. Silva, Bernardi, and

Frozza (2020) described that butyrate acts as a histone deacetylase in-

hibitor thus it might help with gene expression and neural regeneration,

and likely improves the immune system. SCFAs likewise help preserve

intestinal homeostasis by moderating the luminal pH and preventing the

overgrowth of bacterial pathogens (Feng, Ao, & Peng, 2018).

The benecial prots of physically entrapped starch lead it to be a

promising functional ingredient in food production (particularly to

control rapid starch hydrolysis and glycemic response). More in-depth

research on encapsulated starch properties and the protective mecha-

nisms of shell layers has been carried out in recent years (Cui et al.,

2022a, 2022b; Wang, Qin, Sun, & Qiao, 2022). Nevertheless, the crucial

* Corresponding authors at: College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China.

E-mail addresses: supaluck@scau.edu.cn (S. Kraithong), huangriming@scau.edu.cn (R. Huang).

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food Chemistry

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.136322

Received 12 January 2023; Received in revised form 11 April 2023; Accepted 4 May 2023

Food Chemistry 423 (2023) 136322

document relating to entrapped starch and its application is still not

widely revealed. Consequently, this work aims to provide a compre-

hensive review of current encapsulation techniques used to encapsulate

starch and its properties (such as morphologies, swelling, solubility,

texture properties, pasting properties, thermal properties, in vitro starch

digestion, and postprandial glycemic response), which could be used

as background information. Additionally, this review underscores the

signicance of elucidating the current theory on the mechanisms by

which shell matrices regulate starch hydrolysis, and highlights the po-

tential impact of encapsulated starch in food production.

2. Starch encapsulation

Encapsulation is a method for entrapping the core materials inside a

continuous thin shell which has been extensively applied in the drug

delivery system (Buonomenna, 2016). The general purposes of encap-

sulation are i) defending the core materials from adverse environmental

effects (e.g., pH, temperature, humidity), ii) controlling or delaying the

timed release, and iii) combining two incompatible composites for a

multifunctional structure (Hu, Guo, Yu, Cao, & Xu, 2017).

2.1. Starch encapsulation techniques

In this part, the encapsulation methods and other relevant tech-

niques that have currently been applied to encapsulate starch granules

for preventing enzymatic digestion or controlling glucose released are

discussed.

2.1.1. Ionotropic/ionic gelation method

Currently, the most prevalent technique used for preparing entrap-

ped starch is the ionotropic/ionic gelation method which is also known

as spherication (categorized as physicochemical encapsulation tech-

nique). Firstly, the dispersion of starch and encapsulants are prepared

before ejecting or spraying it into crosslinking agents through a syringe

pump, the electrospinning has been applied to control the ejection rate

in some research works (Mehta et al., 2022). Negatively charged non-

–starch polysaccharides such as sodium alginate, gellan, carrageenan,

and their mixtures have widely been used as encapsulating agents while

calcium chloride (2–5% w/v) solution is frequently used as a cross-

linking agent (Park et al., 2014), as they could form ionic inter-

actions that are called the “egg–box” model (Hamaker, Venktachalam,

Zhang, Keshavarzian, & Rose, 2013). So far sodium alginate (including

the mix thereof) has predominantly been used as an encapsulant due to

its great crosslinking interactions achieved by exchanging sodium ions

from the glucuronic acids (GlcAs) with divalent cations, promoting self-

assembled structures which cause microsphere formation (Xiong, Wang,

Chen, & Peng, 2018). The developments of shell networks originate after

the injection of the starch–encapsulant dispersion into the crosslinking

solution. During this process, a dispersion comprising starch granules

and encapsulant is transformed into droplets, wherein the encapsulant

charges engage in interactions with crosslinking ions (Ca

). The ionic

interactions create the rigid gel networks that physically wrap and pack

starch granules that are existed in the droplets which simultaneously

cause the creation of self-assembled microspheres. The scheme of the

shell matrix and microparticle formation through the ionic gelation

method is presented in Fig. 1. The success of starch encapsulation by this

technique is highly based on the ability of encapsulants to interact with

ions of crosslinking agents or vice versa since it determines the forma-

tion of shell matrices and encapsulation efciency. This method has

been reported to successfully control starch amylolysis and glucose

release of waxy–normal corn, potato, (native, boiled, or roasted) pea,

high amylose, amylosucrase (AS)–treated waxy corn starches (Ning, Cui,

& Yuan, 2020; Lu et al., 2018; Park et al., 2014). The factors that need to

be concerned to achieve starch encapsulation by this approach are the

characteristics and concentrations of encapsulants and crosslinking

agents, including the ratios between starch and encapsulant.

2.1.2. Spray drying method

Spray drying method is the most common physicomechanical tech-

niques that have commonly been applied for encapsulation purposes,

however, these techniques are may not approachable compared to ionic

gelatinization since they are generally proper for producing encapsu-

lated starch in a big batch, and the properties or physical appearance of

the obtained products could be inconsistent due to the limits of encap-

sulation parameter optimization. In the spray drying process, the

dispersion of starch and encapsulant materials are primarily prepared

before pumping through the spray drying nozzle. Proteins have mostly

been reported to be used as encapsulating agents. Recently, only Krai-

thong, Theppawong, Ai, and Issara (2023b) employed non-starch poly-

saccharides (sodium alginate, guar gum, and their mixtures, at 1% w/v)

as encapsulant materials to encapsulate native corn starch through the

spray drying method. After atomization, the starch–encapsulant

dispersion is generated into droplets encountering a hot air stream in the

spray drying chamber; unfolded proteins subsequently adhere to starch

surfaces mostly through hydrogen bonds and van der Waals force (Yang,

Zhong, Goff, & Li, 2019). Then, the droplets are rapidly vaporized and

consequently solidied (the rigid shell protein matrices are formed on

starch surfaces, creating solid particles) before being collected in the

collector, as displayed in Fig. 1. This encapsulation technique has

effectively been used to encapsulate corn starch with different concen-

trations of zein, at a ow rate of 15 mL/min and at the inlet and outlet

temperatures of 120 ◦C and 90 ◦C, respectively (Xu & Zhang, 2014). The

encapsulation efciency may be inuenced by factors such as the con-

centrations, viscosity, and ratios of starch and encapsulant in the

dispersion of the starch-shell material.

2.1.3. Homogenization

This method is recognized as another physicomechanical technique

for starch encapsulation. In this process, starch and encapsulating ma-

terials are initially intermixed together via physical forces before un-

dergoing the drying process. This method has been used to encapsulate

the retrograded debranched corn and proso millet starches with konjac

glucomannan and proteins (e.g., zein, soy, and whey protein isolates)

(Ning et al., 2020; Zheng et al., 2020). Ning et al. (2020) dissolved

konjac glucomannan (3–12% based on corn starch weight corn starch) in

water before adding debranched corn starch into the dispersions. The

mixtures were further stirred for 20 min and homogenized using an

ultrahigh–pressure homogenizer for 5 min before incubating at room

temperature for 8 h and drying at 50 ◦C. Zheng et al. (2020) mixed zein

(15%, w/w, based on starch dry weight) with 300 mL ethanol (60%, v/

v) before adding proso millet starch to the zein dispersion. Soy protein

isolates and starch were mixed at a ratio of 5:1 and dissolved in phos-

phate buffer (pH 7.8) with constant stirring. Whey protein isolates were

rstly dispersed in distilled water with constant stirring for obtaining a

10% concentration. Then, the protein dispersion was adjusted pH to 7

using 1 M NaOH solution and was left overnight at 4 ◦C with magnetic

stirring. The proso millet starch slurry (30%, w/v) was nally added to

the whey protein solution under mechanical stirring. Lastly, all samples

were incubated at 90 ◦C for 30 min and then freeze–dried till moisture

content was lower than 10%. In physicomechanical encapsulation

methods, starch granules are randomly enclosed or trapped by the rigid

protein matrices. These techniques are rapid approaches to producing

encapsulated starch by reason of low cost and convenient operation

(since there are no crosslinking agents involved). Nevertheless, the

limitations of using these approaches are still found as described before.

2.1.4. Anti-solvent/nanoprecipitation technique

The chemical techniques which are anti-solvent/nanoprecipitation

technique and protein crosslinking have been adapted to produce cor-

e–shell starch/zein microparticles by Wang et al. (2022). The anti-

solvent/nanoprecipitation usually involves the precipitation mecha-

nism which the nanoparticle formation is occurred by the addition of

antisolvent to solvent (Liu & Yang, 2018; Viçosa, Letourneau, Espitalier,

S. Kraithong et al.

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